Author: gustavorernesto

PDF #7 – An Introduction To The Study Of Language by Leonard Bloomfield 1914

This little book is intended, as its title implies, for the general reader and for the student who is entering upon linguistic work. Its purpose is the same, accordingly, as that of Whitney’s Language and the Study of Language and The Life and Growth Language, books which fifty years ago represented the attainments of linguistic science and, owing to their author’s clearness of view and conscientious discrimination between ascertained fact and mere surmise, contain little to which we cannot today subscribe. 

The great progress of our science in the last half-century is, I believe, nevertheless sufficient excuse for my attempt to give a summary of what is now known about language. That the general reader needs such information as is here given was recognized by Whitney, who wrote, in the preface of his first-named book: ‘It can hardly admit of question that at least so much knowledge of the nature, history, and classifications of language as is here presented ought to be included in every scheme of higher education.’ While questions of a linguistic nature are everywhere a frequent subject of discussion, it is surprising how little even educated people are in touch with the scientific study of language. I hope that my book will furnish a simple aid for those who choose to make up this deficiency in our scheme of general education.

After reading “Study Of Language by Leonard Bloomfield” you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs and visit my channel by YouTube.

PDF #6 – Davis, Ernest – Embodied Simulation as a Theory of Language 

When someone hears or reads a sentence, he is likely to visualize the scenario described. And, perhaps more surprisingly, to activate parts of the brain that control muscles associated with actions that are mentioned or implicit in the text. For instance, if you read a description of a polar bear hunting a seal, you are likely to visualize the bear and the seal on an icy seashore. If you read the sentence, “John turned the key in the ignition” or “John screwed off the gas cap”, the part of the brain that controls motion of the hand is activated.  Remarkably, after reading the first sentence, an experimental subject finds it easier to turn their hand clockwise than counterclockwise; the reverse is true after reading the second sentence. This kind of visualization and activation of motor control is known as “embodied simulation”.

In the last two decades, there have been many psychological studies. And some neuroscientific studies of embodied simulation, examining many different aspects of the phenomena. For example, if a reader reads a story about someone driving a car, under what circumstances does he visualize the
story from the point of view of the driver, looking at the steering wheel, as opposed to visualizing an image of the driver as seen from the side? When do simulations constructed in reaction to hearing a sentence make it easier to do some other task and when do they interfere with the other tasks? What parts of the brain are involved in a simulation? What kinds of individual differences do people exhibit in constructing and using simulation?

After reading “Embodied Simulation as a Theory of Language” you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs and visit my channel by YouTube.

PDF #5 – Orhan Kocamana, Gökhan Cansız – Teachers’ Beliefs About Teaching English to Elementary School Children

Recent research has focused much attention on teacher beliefs because  beliefs are considered to greatly influence teaching practice. Teachers’ belief systems need critical inquiry so that teachers can reflect on their practices more closely. Teacher training institutions can take necessary steps to improve teacher practice. This study compared beliefs held by 192 non-native in-service and pre-service teachers in Istanbul, Turkey. Data about the teachers’ beliefs were collected by means of a questionnaire and observations. The results indicated that both groups strongly supported communicative language teaching methodology, emphasizing the need for addressing children’s educational and emotional needs. The agreement rates, however, differed significantly in some respects.

The Turkish educational reform in 1997 required that foreign languages (English, German or French), begin at grade 4 instead of 6. Compulsory primary education became eight years. The number of learners nearly doubled as a result of the reform. The Turkish Ministry of National Education had to deal with an acute shortage of foreign language teachers. A deficit met by appointing teachers from other subject areas after a brief in-service education. The newly appointed teachers lacked even minimum linguistic skills and knowledge of language teaching methods and techniques, causing major debates as to the efficiency of their teaching (Çetintaş, 2010). The problem of teacher shortages was compounded by a lack of materials and overcrowded classrooms (Doğançay-Aktuna, 1998).

After reading “Teachers’ Beliefs About Teaching English” you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs and visit my channel by YouTube.

PDF #4 – Some Reflections on the Impact of Globalization in the Teaching and Learning of English in So-called “Expanding Circle” Countries

Globalization on English Teaching – This article deals with the ongoing debate on the complex role of English as an International Language, be it understood as a homogeneous entity (one language with an international role [EIL]) or a heterogeneous one (different varieties(WE or ELF) grouped under one label, «English») as well as on the implications of this «globalizing» status for its teaching in non-native settings. 

Given the complexity of this phenomenon, whose study is still in its infancy, we attempt neither to provide definitive answers nor adopt a prescriptive attitude, but simply contribute to the discussion and clarification of this, to some extent, emergent, controversial situation.

It is nowadays an undeniable fact that English is by far the most widespread
language in the world. Not only geographical, historical and socio-cultural factors, as Crystal (1997) mentions, but also political ones, led to the initial spread of English. First of all, the two diasporas (as mentioned by Kachru and Nelson 2001:10), that is, the migrations of British speakers to Australia, New Zealand and North America, as well as the colonization of other countries such as Asia or Africa.

Secondly, the position of England as the leading country as regards industrialization and trade, especially after the Industrial Revolution, and, therefore, the association of English to the language of advancement and development, whose knowledge was (and still is) required by those who wish to remain up-to-date in the latest technological and scientific issues. All these
conditions (namely, historical, political, economic, demographic, technological, scientific, and socio-cultural), reinforced by the role of the media since the late 20th century, positioned English as a global, international or world language

After reading “Globalization on English Teaching” you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs and visit my channel by YouTube.

PDF #3 – Goldberg, Adele – Constructions A new theoretical approach

This is a new theoretical approach to language has emerged in the past 10–15 years that allows linguistic observations about form–meaning pairings, known as ‘constructions’, to be stated directly. Constructionist approaches aim to account for the full range of facts about language, without assuming that a particular subset of the data is part of a privileged ‘core’. Researchers in this field argue that unusual constructions shed light on more general issues, and can illuminate what is required for a complete account of language.

Constructions – form and meaning pairings – have been the basis of major advances in the study of grammar since the days of Aristotle. Observations about specific linguistic constructions have shaped our understanding of both
particular languages and the nature of language itself. But only recently has a new theoretical approach emerged that allows observations about constructions to be stated directly, providing long-standing traditions with a framework that allows both broad generalizations and more limited patterns to be analyzed and accounted for fully. This is in contrast to the mainstream ‘generative’ approach to language, which has held sway for the past several decades, beginning with Chomsky in 1957

You can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs and visit my channel by YouTube.

PDF #2 – Kirsten Malmkjaer – Encyclopedia of Linguistics Second Edition 2002

You are reading something, or listening to a lecture, or taking part in a conversation about language. You notice an unfamiliar term, or realize that you don’t know enough about what is being said to understand. At this point, you should seek out this encyclopedia. Strategies for the use of encyclopedias differ, but this one is designed to allow you to proceed in one of three ways:

• You can consult the index at the back of the book, where you will find the term or subject in question appearing in its alphabetically determined place, with a page reference, or several, which will tell you where in the main body of the work it is defined, described and/or discussed.
• If you are looking for a major field of linguistic study, you can consult the
  List of entries immediately before this Preface.
• l You can simply dive into the body of the work.

The entries are designed to be informative and easy to access. They do not provide as much information as you will find in a full book on any given topic, but they contain sufficient information to enable you to understand the basics, and to decide whether you need more.

After reading “Encyclopedia of Linguistics” you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs, and visit my YouTube channel.

PDF #1 – How classroom teachers can help students learn and teach them how to learn

Classroom Teachers Help Students – You would think that college students are expert learners; after all, they have completed 12 years of school and have chosen to extend their academic path. In reality, many college students are deficient learners who employ weak strategies in the classroom and while studying (Gubbels, 1999; Kiewra, 1991; Pressley, Yokoi, Van Meter, Van Etten, & Freebern, 1997).

What Teachers Need to Know?

First, teachers need to understand subject matter deeply and flexibly so that they can help students create useful cognitive maps, relate ideas to one another, and address misconceptions. Teachers need to see how ideas connect across fields and to everyday life. (Shulman, 1987.)

Interpreting learners’ statements and actions and shaping productive experiences for them require an understanding of child and adolescent development and of how to support growth in various domains — cognitive, social, physical, and emotional. Teaching in ways that connect with students also requires an understanding of differences that may arise from culture, family experiences, developed intelligences, and approaches to learning. Teachers need to be able to inquire sensitively, listen carefully, and look thoughtfully at student work.

Teachers need to know about curriculum resources and technologies to connect their students with sources of information and knowledge that allow them to explore ideas, acquire and synthesize information, and frame and solve problems. And teachers need to know about collaboration: how to structure interactions among students, how to collaborate with other teachers, and how to work with parents to shape supportive experiences at school and home.

What else?

Teachers play an essential role in the academic success of all the children they teach. However, it is critical that they play an even more dominant role in helping children who are facing academic failure and/or performing below their academic potential. Admittedly, this isn’t an easy task with a classroom full of other students who also need the teacher’s help and guidance.

An additional challenge for many teachers is learning to effectively cope with the differences in culture and socioeconomic status. It may exist with their students. Such differences may include learning and social styles, as well as communication skills, and the gaps they can create between teacher and student can be frustrating and even overwhelming.

However, with proper support from colleagues and administrators, teachers can significantly improve their chances of getting through to students, and in turn, increase their chance for academic success.

After reading “Classroom Teachers Help Students” you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs and visit my channel by YouTube.