Category: PDFs

PDF #29 – Al-Surmi, Mansoor – Discourse Markers and Reading Comprehension

Discourse Markers and Reading Comprehension – This paper is a contribution to the studies conducted for investigating the relationship between text linguistic signals and reading understanding. The aim of this paper is to test the hypothesis that discourse markers facilitate reading understanding . The specific question addressed is whether the presence of discourse markers facilitates reading understanding at a global level (i.e., at the discourse level).

Two groups of L2 learners were given a text followed by multiple choice comprehension questions. One group was given the actual text, while the other group was given the same text with discourse markers removed. The results indicated that there were no differences in the performance of the two groups. The study concluded that presence or absence of discourse markers may have no effect on the overall representation of coherent information needed for reading understanding.

Reading comprehension is an outcome of text processing that involves the construction of a coherent cognitive representation of the information in the text. That representation is established by integrating the information provided in text units and understanding the coherence relations that bond those text units to each other (Dijk & Kintsch, 1983). Cohesion, according to Halliday and Hasan (1976), are realized through four main elements: connectives such as conjunctions and some lexical expressions, cataphoric and anaphoric references, substitution as in using pronouns instead of nouns, and ellipsis. These features act together to structure text information in a coherent way for readers.

According to many research findings, the presence of discourse markers (DMs) enhances readers’ comprehension of the texts they read. However, there is a paucity of research on the relationship between knowledge of DMs and reading comprehension (RC) and the present study explores the relationship between them. Knowledge of DMs is measured through examining the subjects’ recognition of DMs. To carry out the research, 86 Iranian sophomores majoring in English took a test of DMs alongside a RC test. The correlation between their scores on the two tests was calculated using the software SPSS. The analysis revealed that there is high correlation between the students’ knowledge of DMs (i.e., their correct recognition of discourse markers) and their reading comprehension (rxy = .71). Moreover, high correlation carries a strong regression power and scores on a test of DMs could be a good indicator of the test takers’ reading ability.

After reading this article you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs, and visit my YouTube channel.

English Approaches to Discourse – The present study is an investigation of how English has been conceptualized in the discourses of ten Brazilian English language teachers with diverse language teaching experiences.

PDF #28 – Eduardo Figueiredo – Conceptualizations of English in the discourses of Brazilian language teachers

Discourses of major agents in Brazilian English language teaching (ELT) – mainly the media, language schools, and the Ministry of Education through its national guidelines – usually associate English with notions of mobility, empowerment, and international ownership. 

The understanding of how English language educators conceptualize the language thus provides a valuable perspective on how these discourses may be taken on and reproduced by teachers. Such understanding is also relevant because educators have firsthand experience in what actually goes on inside schools, thus being able to provide important accounts that are based on real life examples of their practices.

The accounts of the teachers presented here signal that there is a belief that mobility and empowerment – often associated with English – do not necessarily come with the language, but are actually often seen as assets that one must have in order to be able to learn it in the first place. According to the teachers interviewed in this study, this is usually the case with students who
have no interest in learning the language simply because they do not envision themselves traveling outside of Brazil. Therefore, based on these participants’ accounts, the case of Brazil seems similar to those of other expanding circle countries – such as Argentina, China, Japan, and Ukraine, to cite a few (see, for instance, Hu, 2008; Niño-Murcia, 2003; Nishino & Watanabe, 2008; Nunan, 2003; Tarnopolsky, 1996; Zappa-Holman, 2007) – where larger discourses about English (promoted by pedagogical policies, for instance) are all too often very detached from the realities of local schools, teachers, and students.

After reading “English Approaches to Discourse” you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs, and visit my YouTube channel.

PDF #27 – The History of Teaching English as a Foreign Language from a British and European Perspective

This article offers an overview of historical developments in EFL (English as a Foreign Language) teaching methodology over the last 250 years. Being based on periods rather than methods, it is intended as an alternative kind of account to the ‘method mythologies’ which have tended to dominate professional thinking for the last thirty years.

Thus, we structure our account according to four periods characterized by main concerns and overall approaches, revealing greater continuity and overlap among teaching theories and practices than in accounts which accept discrete, bounded ‘methods’ as the primary unit of organization. Confronting a conception of the past typically presented as universal but in fact reflecting a USA-centric perspective, our alternative, UK-focused and, to some extent, European version of history asserts the value of explicit geographical contextualization and indicates a new direction for the history of EFL teaching — ‘beyond method’, and in multiple locations.

In the Western world back in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, foreign language learning was associated with the learning of Latin and Greek, both supposed to promote their speakers’ intellectuality. At the time, it was of vital importance to focus on grammatical rules, syntactic structures, along with rote memorisation of vocabulary and translation of literary texts. There was no provision for the oral use of the languages under study; after all, both Latin and Greek were not being taught for oral communication but for the sake of their speakers’ becoming “scholarly?” or creating an illusion of “erudition.” Late in the nineteenth century, the Classical Method came to be known as the Grammar Translation Method, which offered very little beyond an insight into the grammatical rules attending the process of translating from the second to the native language.

It is widely recognised that the Grammar Translation Method is still one of the most popular and favourite models of language teaching, which has been rather stalwart and impervious to educational reforms, remaining a standard and sine qua non methodology. With hindsight, we could say that its contribution to language learning has been lamentably limited, since it has shifted the focus from the real language to a “dissected body” of nouns, adjectives, and prepositions, doing nothing to enhance a student’s communicative ability in the foreign language.

After reading “The History of Teaching English” you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs, and visit my YouTube channel.

PDF # 25 – Claude Marcel – Language as a means of mental culture and international communication

Claude Marcel’s proposal was to make the teaching of reading the priority in foreign language teaching. His main work was a two-volume study of the role of vernacular in education called Language as a Means of Mental Culture and International Communication (1853). It attempts to define a role for the teaching of languages, native and foreign, modern and classical, in the context of a far-ranging study of the nature, purpose and structure of education.

Language is culture and culture is language

These two have a complex, homologous relationship. Language is complexly intertwined with arts (they have developed together, influence one another and ultimately shape what it means to be human). In this context, ALKrober (1923) said: “So arts began when there was language, and from then on the enrichment of both means the further development of the other.”

When culture is a product of human interaction, cultural manifestations are acts of communication adopted by particular language communities. According to Rossi Landi (1973), “the entirety of the messages that we exchange with each other when we speak a certain tongue form a linguistic community, that is, the whole of society, which is understood from the point of view of speaking.” He further explains that all children share their language learn from their societies and, while learning a language, also learn their arts and develop their cognitive skills.

After reading this article you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs, and visit my YouTube channel.

PDF #24 – Thomas Prendergast The Mastery of Languages, or the art of speaking foreign languages idiomatically

Thomas Prendergast (1806-1886) wrote and published his ‘Mastery System’ for learning language call The Mastery of Languages, or the art of speaking foreign languages idiomatically, which appeared in 1864 and it was followed by courses for French and German (both 1868), Spanish (1869), Latin (1872), and Hebrew (1871).

He started with example of language acquisition by young children. His account shows that he observed children carefully and did not come to them looking for confirmation of prejudices. He made a particularly telling point in his description right at the outset which many observers would have overlooked. He noticed that small infants interpret the meaning of language by making use of other information available to them in the wider context, what people do, how they look, their gestures and facial expressions, and so on. His next point is equally perceptive, though his interpretation led him down the wrong path.

This book is a reproduction of an important historical work. Forgotten Books uses state-of-the-art technology to digitally reconstruct the work, preserving the original format whilst repairing imperfections present in the aged copy. In rare cases, an imperfection in the original, such as a blemish or missing page, may be replicated in our edition. We do, however, repair the vast majority of imperfections successfully; any imperfections that remain are intentionally left to preserve the state of such historical works.

An Eternal Discussion on The Mastery of Languages

Some members thought that maybe mastery of a language can be measured by the mastery of pronunciation. In that it is the pronunciation that defines ones acceptance in the language speaking society and also allows you to communicate efficiently.

Completely mastery is not possible because most fields have their own special vocabulary and also the language itself is self developing constantly and one has to keep up with that forever. Mastering a language means mastery over a language in aspects of language history, mastery over all evolution from A to Z .
Some members were of the opinion that when a foreign language speaker can practically communicate easily and spontaneously with native speaker then he/she has mastered the language. When one doesn’t strain to understand what the native speaker is saying and when one is able to make valid points while speaking without sounding like he/she is fighting with herself /himself to get the words out of the mouth then one is fluent.

Some members felt that there is a huge difference in mastering a language and just being fluent in a language. Fluency ought not be to be mistaken for mastery of a language, feeling confident in expressing yourself and having one on one conversation with people in a language does not mean one has mastered a language. Other members suggested that mastering a language is when one can converse with a large group of native speakers of that language and not get lost. This includes having a firm understanding of the accent /dialect, slang, idioms and other expressions that are not taught in school.

After reading “The Mastery of Languages” you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs, and visit my YouTube channel.

PDF # 23 – Teaching English as a Foreign Language 

Teaching English as a Foreign Language – TEFL is the term used to refer to the activity of teaching English to non-native speakers of the language. This activity is also referred to as Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL).

Teaching English as a second language (TESL) refers to teaching English to students whose first language is not English. It is usually offered in a region where English is the dominant language and natural English language immersion situations are apt to be plentiful. Usually focused on essential vocabulary, this includes family names, household objects, basic adjectives and place names. As well as most commonly used verbs and modal expression.

The teaching profession has historically used different names for TEFL and TESL; however, the more generic term teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) is increasingly used to describe the profession, it covers both TESL and TEFL as an umbrella term. Both native speakers and non-native speakers successfully train to be English language teachers. In order to teach English as a Second Language to English Language Learners, or ELL’s, one must pass a written and oral test in English to demonstrate proficiency.

The TESOL profession made progress during the 1970s and 1980s in achieving desired goals, such as shifting its focus from product-oriented to process-oriented teaching, specifically referring to an instructor facilitating a learning environment that allows the student’s strategize and formulate their own ideas such as activities that utilize creativity and exploration rather than strictly learning facts from a rigid curriculum to a more flexible one.

The teaching profession has historically used different names for TEFL and TESL; however, the more generic term teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) is increasingly used to describe the profession, it covers both TESL and TEFL as an umbrella term.[4] Both native speakers and non-native speakers successfully train to be English language teachers. In order to teach English as a Second Language to English Language Learners, or ELL’s, one must pass a written and oral test in English to demonstrate proficiency.

The TESOL profession made progress during the 1970s and 1980s in achieving desired goals, such as shifting its focus from product-oriented to process-oriented teaching, specifically referring to an instructor facilitating a learning environment that allows the student’s strategize and formulate their own ideas such as activities that utilize creativity and exploration rather than strictly learning facts from a rigid curriculum to a more flexible one[5].[6]

The use of these various terms has led to confusion about the training options for both prospective students and for employers. Because there is no global standard for the training of English language teacher, it is important to look beyond the actual acronym/title to the components of the training program. Short term certificate programs that do not have an academic affiliation resulting in credits or degrees (such as CELTA or other non-credit programs) can be a good launching pad for beginning positions internationally, but they will generally not provide sufficient training for a career (unless a person already has substantial experience and a degree in a closely related field). People interested in pursuing a career as an English language teacher should invest in credit-bearing programs that result in a university recognized certificate or degree program (MA/TESOL, MA/Applied Linguistics) particularly if one wants to work in higher education. Because of the confusing certification situation, employers now generally look for a certificate that reflects at least 100 hours of instruction in order to determine if the candidate has sufficient preparation to begin teaching English. Institutions with higher standards will require applicants to possess a master’s degree for employment.

People wishing to teach in the K-12 public school system in the United States will need a state-teacher certification at a minimum and an ELL Endorsement (or other state qualification) to be qualified to teach ELL.

After reading this article you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs, and visit my YouTube channel.

PDF #21 – An Introduction to Cognitive Grammar

Despite the diversity of contemporary linguistic theory, certain fundamental views enjoy a rough consensus and are widely accepted without serious questions.

Points of general agreement include the following: (a) language is a self-contained system amenable to algorithmic characterization, with sufficient autonomy to be studied in essential isolation from broader cognitive concerns; (b) grammar (syntax in particular) is an independent aspect of linguistic structure distinct from both lexicon and semantics; and (c) if meaning falls within the purview of linguistic analysis, it is properly described by some type of formal logic based on truth conditions. Individual theorists would doubtlessly qualify their assent in various ways, but (a)-(c) certainly come much closer than their denials to representing majority opinion. What follows is a minority report.

Since 1976, I have been developing a linguistic theory that departs quite radically from the assumptions of the currently predominant paradigm. Called “cognitive grammar” (alias “space grammar”), this model assumes that language is neither self-contained nor describable without essential reference to cognitive processing (regardless of whether one posits a special faculté de langage). Grammatical structures do not constitute an autonomous formal system or level of representation.

They are claimed instead to be inherently symbolic, providing for the structuring and conventional symbolization of conceptual content. Lexicon, morphology, and syntax form a continuum of symbolic units, divided only arbitrarily into separate ‘components’-it is ultimately as pointless to analyze grammatical units without reference to their semantic value as to write a dictionary which omits the meanings of its lexical items. Moreover, a for- mal semantics based on truth conditions is deemed inadequate for describing the meaning of linguistic expressions. One reason is that semantic structures are characterized relative to knowledge systems whose scope is essentially open-ended. A second is that their value reflects not only the content of a conceived situation, but also how this content is structured and construed.

Make sure to visit our PDFs section and out social medias that are at the bottom of the homepage. To know more about my honest opinion on Worksheets you can visit my YouTube channel.

PDF #20 – Innovations in learning technologies for English language teaching

In this early part of the 21st century the range of technologies available for use in language learning and teaching has become very diverse and the ways that they are being used in classrooms all over the world, as illustrated in this book, have become central to language practice. 

Times Have Changed

Times have changed, teachers have evolved, and we now have a new breed of
learning technologists. As in Hong Kong, the first changes began in the classroom itself – new technologies such as overhead projectors, interactive whiteboards, laptop computers and wireless internet have opened up the classroom to the outside world. Teachers who spent their lives managing with a textbook, a tape recorder and a blackboard are now adept at using PowerPoint to present grammar, playing podcasts to practise listening skills, pulling texts off the world wide web to introduce reading skills and perhaps most ground-breaking of all – empowering students by giving them access to a wide range of web-based tools that allow them to publish work and engage with live audiences in real contexts.

And that is just the beginning – because just as technologies have begun to change the way that English is learned in the classroom, even bigger changes seem to be taking place outside it. In fact, the digital revolution in learning now threatens to undermine the classroom completely as a place of study. Learning English through mobile devices gains credibility every day and the increasing popularity and rapidly diminishing cost of tablet devices reinforce this by providing a format that really is capable of delivering courseware. Factor in the growing interest in Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), providing large-scale (and free) learning interventions, and it is clear that technology still has much to offer ELT.

Virtual Reality (VR) in Education

Virtual Reality technology is already the hottest thing in the tech world. Big companies are gearing up for a brutal war over this technology including Google, Sony, Oculus (backed by Facebook), Samsung, and more. One of the areas of application of VR technology is education. With VR, students can learn via interacting with a 3D world. Google has been on the forefront of introducing experiential learning in schools through VR technology.

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

Artificial intelligence is being applied in all levels of technology, from the lowest to the most advanced levels. AI is used in schools to automate key activities such as grading of subjects and providing feedback on areas that need improvement. It is also used to enhance personalized learning among students, especially those with special needs. Through machine learning, adaptive programs have been developed that care for the individual needs of students. AI tutors have been developed to teach students subjects such as mathematics and writing.

Cloud Computing for Education

Educational resources can be accessed from any part of the world thanks to cloud computing technology. Vital resources such as written lessons, audio lessons, videos, and video assignments can be stored on a school’s cloud terminal. Students can access these resources from the comfort of their homes and complete and submit the assignments back to their tutors. Flimsy excuses that students give for not doing assignments may be a thing of the past. Cloud computing will eliminate the hassle of carrying tons of books or practically living at your local library. This technology also allows students to chat live with their tutor.

3D Printing

3D printers are already causing ripples in the education sector and students are loving them. Content that was previously taught via text books can now be expressed through 3D models. Through this printing technique, students can have a better understanding of something that was thought to be complex. In higher educational institutions, 3D printing is used by engineers and system designers to develop prototypes to be used in the development of final systems. 3D printing takes concepts and makes them real.

Social Media in Educational Institutions

Educational institutions have not been left behind in capitalizing on the impact of social media. In fact, most of these social networking sites were developed on campuses and the first users were college students. Universities and colleges can connect with each other through social networking sites even if they are several continents apart. Through these sites, they are able to organize contests, meetings, and parties. Students from different schools use social media to exchange ideas which can change lives.

The Use of Biometrics in Schools

No more truancy and cheating! The introduction of biometric systems in schools has helped to streamline the education and enhance discipline. Facial recognition, fingerprints, voice recognition, and eye tracking are some of the biometric methods that schools have implemented to streamline their operations. Apart from being used to monitor a student’s class attendance, they are used when borrowing school properties such as books in the library. Teachers use eye tracking methods to monitor how students are absorbing content that they have been taught.

Widespread access of the Internet is one factor that has accelerated the implementation of technological innovations in the education sector. Ideas spread fast and people can research the best methods for using technology in education. Hardware companies are producing devices such as laptops and tablets which are customized to meet specific education needs. Cut-throat competition among different technology firms is another factor that is will accelerate the rate of technology innovations. The future of education certainly looks bright!

After reading “Innovations in Learning Technologies” you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs, and visit my YouTube channel.

PDF #19 – Second Language Teaching and Learning with Technology Views of Emergent Researchers

Second Language Teaching and Learning – Although technology has become embedded in our everyday life, researchers and practitioners constantly strive to find ways of incorporating technology in education, with language learning being one of those fields (Garrett, 2009). Numerous publications on this subject are available, mostly on condition that one is affiliated with a university, and that this university subscribes to a broad spectrum of publications. With the aim of widening free access research publications, we have elaborated a peer-reviewed eBook published under a Creative Commons license which provides not only protection but also freedom for authors and editors. Young researchers from a variety of countries participated with a chapter of their ongoing projects.

Learning a New Language?

Learning a new language? Or teaching a second language? Facing difficulties in learning or teaching a second language? What are some of the strategies in language learning? Here, we will be exploring some tips and tricks in language learning suited to different personality types. We will also look at ways teachers can apply the learning strategies into their course planning to teach the second language more effectively!

While language learning styles are more general, it should not be confused with language learning strategies as the same thing.  “Language learning strategies are the specific behaviors…that students adopt to help them learn (Oxford and Lavine (1992), pg. 1-2).” We will be looking at how language learning strategies affect language learning styles (related to the Myers-Briggs personality types). It was argued that the learning style impacts the learning strategies employed by an individual (Ehrman & Oxford, 1990). It is within this context that Oxford developed the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning, or SILL (Oxford, 1990), which we will be working with in the subsequent subchapters.

After reading “Second Language Teaching and Learning” you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs, and visit my YouTube channel.