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ESL Teaching – What is an ESL Teacher?

ESL Teaching – ESL (English as a Second Language) teachers specialize in helping non-native speakers of all ages and levels learn both the formal grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation of spoken and written English, while giving them confidence in the common usage of the language in order to communicate clearly and comfortably with native English speakers.

The globalization of business and the influx of immigrants to the U.S. have both driven the growth of English language learners and the need for educators who are skilled in teaching this unique group of learners.

According to Face the Facts USA, a Project of George Washington University, 10 percent of all public school students in the United States are English as Second Language (ESL) Learners/English Language Learners (ELLs), meaning they have limited English proficiency. However, less than 1 percent of public school teachers are English as a Second Language (ESL) instructors (or one ESL instructor for every 150 students), thereby highlighting a demand for ESL instructors in our increasingly culturally diverse world.

Amidst the creation of programs in schools across the county designed to address the needs of the students, a number of professional acronyms have emerged that have created a bit of confusion. Given the lack of cohesion nationwide regarding ESL instruction, it is quite common to find state boards of education and private industry/business utilizing one or more acronyms, often describing the same type of instruction. Presented here are the most commonly and authoritatively accepted definitions for the various terms related to teaching English to non-native speakers.

Second Head

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL): The acronym TESOL is a general industry term used to describe educating English Learners. Within TESOL, the following terms are used:

• Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL): TESL involves teaching English to speakers of other languages and it most often interchanged with the term ESL teaching/teachers. TESL/ESL teachers may work for public or private PK-12 schools; private tutoring companies; companies/organizations; and colleges/universities, just to name a few.

• Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL): TEFL involves teaching English abroad where English is not the primary language. TEFL educators may work for international schools, international companies, international organizations/associations, and international universities, just to name a few.
• English to Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL): The term ESOL is generally used when describing programs outside of a PK-12 setting that are designed for ELLs who seek proficiency in social and academic language; ESOL programs, which may also be referred to as English as a Second Language programs, generally teach basic grammar, vocabulary and colloquial terms and phrases to ELLs in a community college, community program, or online program setting. However, states like Florida utilize the ESOL title to describe its academic endorsement for public school teachers and it is commonly used interchangeably with ESL and TESL.
• English Language Learner (ELL): ELL simply refers to students who are not currently proficient as English speakers and are in the process of developing their English language skills. ELL students are referred to as such in both ESL specific classes and regular content area classes that they are integrated into. ELL is a universally accepted term for English language learners in the K-12 setting, as well as among adult non-native English speakers who in the process of learning English.

It is typical for undergraduate and graduate programs and primary and secondary endorsements for ESL in public school settings to be labeled using the acronyms ESOL, ESL, ELL, TESL, and TESOL.

ESL Teaching –  What is an English as a Second Language (ESL) Teacher?

ESL teachers work with English Language Learners (ELLs), or those students for whom English is not their primary language. ESL teachers work with ELLs to help them acquire fluency in English, both spoken and in the written word. ESL teachers, who may work with students of all ages, from kindergarten through twelfth grade, must achieve state-specific credentials in ESL if they work in a public school setting.

ESL teachers also serve as a cultural bridge for students, linking a student’s native culture with their new cultural experience in the United States. As such, ESL teachers help students recognize the similarities between the two cultures.

However, ESL teachers should not be confused with foreign language teachers. Unlike foreign language teachers, who educate students with whom they share a common language, ESL teachers most often educate students with whom they do not share a common language. Because of this, ESL teachers are trained to offer basic explanations using repetition, demonstrations, and pictures.

Qualifying to Become an ESL Teacher

An education in ESL may be obtained through a state-approved teacher preparation program at the undergraduate or graduate level, or it may be a certification program that serves as an additional endorsement to a current teaching license at the elementary or secondary level in a public school setting.

Many states offer ESL as a primary endorsement, such as Oklahoma (English as a Second Language, P-12), Connecticut (TESOL, PK-12), and Washington D.C. (English as a Second Language) for public school teachers. Other states that do not offer ESL as a primary endorsement, offer ESL as an add-on endorsement. Among these states are Arkansas, North Dakota, and Louisiana.

Licensed educators certified in elementary education, and secondary teachers certified in language arts and English (and many times in other subjects), often pursue ESL certification, which typically includes between 15 and 18 semester hours of study, as to best meet the needs of their student population.

Requirements for ESL education and/or certification may differ for private schools and for instruction in private industry or business. TESOL certification is often required.

The Important Work of ESL Teachers

ESL instruction must generally meet specific education laws, including state and federal requirements. Although curriculum for ESL teachers may vary from state to state, all states are currently required to provide ESL learning programs that meet federal mandates for education, including the No Child Left Behind Act.

ESL teachers may work in ELL classrooms as primary educators, or they may work alongside primary teachers as auxiliary support. Providing support in typical classrooms has become commonplace for ESL teachers as many states seek to immerse ELLs in regular class settings. The ultimate goal of ESL teachers is to ensure that ELLs become fluent as to meet the same standards as native English learners.

The Challenges and Opportunities that Await New ESL Teachers

The U.S. Department of State, through their publication, Count Me In- Developing Inclusive International Schools, recognizes that many teachers may lack confidence in teaching ESL students. However, the publication pointed out that effective language teaching for both ESL and other students focuses on “meaning-making,” rather than on recall of vocabulary words and that a positive classroom environment is one that supports true interaction and collaboration between teacher, student, and parent.

It is therefore up to ESL teachers to ensure that favorable conditions surround the acquisition of a second language. ESL teachers, aware of student needs, can circumvent negative student experiences and allow all students to benefit from rich language experiences. It can therefore be said that some of the most important goals of ESL teachers involve:

• Providing environments that are orchestrated to provide opportunities for making meaning, rather than simply recalling new vocabulary or other facts
• Providing a supportive environment where appropriate cognitive challenges exist and conditions that produce threat and anxiety are reduced
• Providing comprehensive input, which includes conveying a message in language that is pitched just beyond what the ELL students can produce themselves

The Department of State publication states that based on the fact that language acquisition in both first and second languages tends to be similar, all students will benefit from an effective language program that is “rich in opportunities to construct personal meaning from course content.”

ESL Teaching – According to the publication, should:

• Expect and respect a silent period in beginning ELL students
• Allow students time to process questions and answers
• Develop non-verbal ways for students to demonstrate their knowledge (charades, role playing, interactive games, drawings, etc.)
• Try to take time to address new students on a one-on-one basis each day
• Utilize assigned peers (buddies) for new ESL students
• Encourage students to discuss academic topics at home in their native language
• Find ways to value ELL’s home culture and language
• Use instructional methodologies that are active and focus on learning by doing and higher-level thinking processes
• Focus on the transmission of meaning and the development of concepts, rather than correct grammatical form
• Implement consistent and valued teaching and learning strategies

ESL Teaching – Career Guide

English as a second language (ESL) teachers work with non-native speakers to help them learn to speak, read, understand, and write in English. They may work in public or private schools, language academies, or teach private lessons out of their home or the homes of students. The term ESL is just one way to refer to the field. Other related terms, which vary by region, state, district, and/or school, include:

• Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD): Used in the US to describe English language learners.
• English Language Learners (ELL): Refers to learners typically found in K-12 environments.
• English Language Teaching or Training (ELT): Mostly used in the UK; same meaning as ESL.
• (Teaching) English for Academic Purposes (TEAP or EAP): Teaching students how to write formally, give presentations, and perform academically in English.
• (Teaching) English as a Foreign Language (TEFL or EFL): Teaching English in a non-English-speaking country.
• Teaching English as a New Language (TENL or ENL): Used in some states instead of ESL.
• (Teaching) English as a Second Language (TESL or ESL): Teaching English in a country that is primarily English-speaking.
• (Teaching) English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL or ESOL): Acronym created in part to be more inclusive than ESL, which assumes English is the second language, when in fact, English may be the third or fourth language.
• (Teaching) English for Specific Purposes (TESP or ESP): Teaching of English that is related to a certain industry such as technology or business.
• Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL): An English language test required of international students who want to study abroad in a country where English is spoken.

ESL students can be found in all age ranges, from children to adults. This guide provides further information on what ESL teachers do, how to become one, and the industry’s salary and job outlook.

ESL Teaching –  Job Description

An ESL teacher is responsible for providing lessons and support to students who are learning English as a second language. Often ESL teachers use a real-life context to help students grasp the complexities of the language. ESL teachers must be adaptable, creative, and sensitive to the cultural differences expected when working with students from different cultures. Sometimes, those who teach English as a second language also act as mentors, advisors, and liaisons to students and families who are just getting established in a new environment. In the public school system, ESL teachers may work with students of all grade levels (K-12), often pulling ESL students out of the regular classroom to a designated area, where they work with them in small groups or one-on-one to improve their English skills. Depending on the size of the school, these small groups may comprise English language learners of different ages and grade levels who all need assistance with their English language skills.

ESL Teaching – Requirements & Common Tasks

Teachers of ESL plan and deliver lessons and assess students on their progress, strengths, and weaknesses. They might teach an entire class or, more commonly in the public school system, teach students in small groups. ESL teachers organize activities and administer and grade tests. They may work with children or adult students of varied ages from diverse backgrounds. Some adult students may have been highly educated in their native country, while others may have little formal education. A flexible teaching style that adapts to varied student needs is a valuable skill for an ESL teacher. Excellent communication skills are also important.

Besides instructing students in the subject of English, ESL teachers must prepare lesson plans, complete related paperwork, and stay informed with changing teaching methods and standards. Because of the increasing use of technology in the classroom, ESL teachers need proficiency in computers and various classroom technologies. As with most teachers, teachers of English as a second language often spend nights and weekends grading papers, planning their lessons, conducting activities, and meeting with parents and other school faculty. Teachers of adult learners specifically may be required to teach classes outside of regular working hours, since adult students often work during the day.

How to Become an ESL Teacher

All states require that public school ESL teachers have at least a bachelor’s degree, which may be in English as a second language or a related subject. Prospective ESL teachers must complete a state-approved teacher preparation program either as part of their bachelor’s program or as a stand-alone program following graduation. A master’s degree is not usually required to be an ESL teacher, but may be pursued by those who already have a bachelor’s degree in something else or for already licensed teachers looking to specialize in ESL. Education and training with a focus on teaching, linguistics, or second-language acquisition is preferred. In public school districts, ESL teachers are required to obtain state teacher certification, commonly with an ESL, ESOL, ENL, or ELL endorsement. If you have not yet received a bachelor’s degree and are not yet a certified teacher, the typical path to this career is as follows:

Earn a bachelor’s degree in ESL or TESOL or a related subject, such as linguistics.

Complete a student teaching internship in an ESL setting as part of your program.

Take your state’s tests for teacher licensure with an endorsement in ESL.

Apply for your teaching license.

Begin applying to open positions for ESL teachers.

Those who have a bachelor’s degree in another subject but would like to teach K-12 ESL classes may be able to qualify for a license by earning a master’s degree in ESL preparing graduates to take the state board exams and leading to teacher certification. ESL degree programs include classes in subjects dealing with the history of the English language, the way that the language has changed and is still changing, and strategies on how to teach the language to people whose first language is not English. Other ESL degree coursework includes teaching reading and comprehension skills and successfully teaching students from diverse cultural backgrounds. ESL programs also instruct students on how to integrate teaching English with other subjects, such as science, mathematics, and history.

ESL Teaching – Salary and Job Outlook

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports that the median annual salary for elementary school and high school teachers is $58,600 and $60,320 respectively.^1,2 It also reports that adult literacy teachers, a category that includes adult ESL teachers, earn an average median salary of $53,630.³ The related BLS category of Adult Basic and Secondary Education and Literacy Teachers and Instructors reports a median salary of $52,100 per year.⁴ Wages are directly affected by job location, training, education, and experience, as well as available funding for ESL programs. Job openings for ESL teachers may be more abundant in states with larger non-native English populations, such as New York, Florida, California, and Texas. While the BLS doesn’t provide projections specifically for ESL teachers, it does estimate a 3% increase in elementary school jobs and a 4% increase in high school teacher jobs by 2028.^1,2 Adult literacy teacher jobs, including those in ESL, are expected to drop by 10% through 2028, citing changes in government funding for these types of programs.

Applied Linguistics

article taken from the Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, 2nd

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The Birth of AL

Perhaps no other field in the humanities or the social sciences has experienced so much debate in coming to terms with its self-image as has applied linguistics (AL). The term AL was created in the United States and in Britain more or less at once. In the latter half of the 1950s. In 1956, the University of Edinburgh founded the School of Applied Linguistics. Under the direction of J.C. Catford, and in 1957 the Center for AL was founded in Washington, DC, directed by Charles Ferguson. While the two organizations differed in scope, both shared the general aim of promoting and increased the teaching of the English language. From the start AL was a field not only related to the teaching and learning of a specific language – English.

The field has not only grown to include the teaching and learning of languages other than English, but it has also broadened its vision to include more than language teaching and learning. Rampton (1995b: 234), for instance, contends that the British School of applied linguistics is shifting away from traditional concerns with pedagogy, linguistics and psychology, and towards a more general interest in social phenomena.

In fact, there appears to be a general consensus among those who consider themselves to be applied linguists that, in addition to its traditional base, the field encompasses such areas as language policy and language planning, lexicography and lexicology, speech therapy, multilingual and language contact studies, language assessment, second language acquisition, literacy, forensic linguistics, and some would even include stylistics, genre studies, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, language socialization, conversation analysis and translation and interpreting.

Journals

The field counts a number of internationally recognized journals among its publishing organs, including:

• Applied Linguistics
• Annual Review of Applied Linguistics
• International Review of Applied Linguistics
• International Journal of Applied Linguistics

These journals, among others, support editorial policies that have paralleled the expansion of the field and regularly publish articles in many of the areas listed above. Other journals, such as:

• Language Learning
• Studies in Second Language Acquisition
• Second Language Research
• Modern Language Journal

Have maintained their focus on empirical and, to a lesser extent, theoretical studies, relating to the acquisition and teaching of languages beyond the first. At least two journals focus primarily on the teaching and learning of English:

• TESOL Quarterly
• English Language Teaching Journal

Others are concerned with specific domains, such as:

• Language Testing
• Journal of Second Language Writing

Another sign of the robustness of the field is the increasing number of monograph and book-length volumes published by important academic and commercial presses, including:

• Oxford University Press
• Cambridge University Press
• Blackwell
• Routledge
• Pearson
• John Benjamins
• Elsevier

The raking of the journals can be check in:

• SJR

There has also been remarkable growth in the number of universities around the world offering graduate degrees in AL. The field continues not to have  the precise nature of what is AL as an academic discipline, and how it relates to other domains of linguistics. What, for example, are the fundamental statements around which the field coheres? What is precisely applied in AL? Is there a theoretical component to applied linguistics or is it only a practical discipline?

The basis of AL

The early Edinburgh School considered applied linguists to be consumers rather than producers of linguistic theory. The task of AL activity was to interpret the findings of linguistic research on how languages are learned and used. Thus, to inform language teaching (Corder 1973: 10). In arguing for an expanded understanding of the domain of AL to include not just language teaching but also stylistics, language disabilities and translation, Crystal (1980) proposed that, not only could the findings of linguistic research be made relevant to these areas, but so could its theories and research methods.

AL and LA

As AL expanded its interests beyond the domain of language teaching, it became apparent that disciplines other than linguistics would need to be drawn on in order to develop in-depth understandings and solutions to real-world language problems. Eventually, Widdowson, a disciple of the Edinburgh School, proposed an important distinction between applied linguistics and linguistics applied.

The latter concept is closer to the original understanding of the term ‘applied linguistics’; that is, it assumes that language-based real-world problems can be solved exclusively through the application of linguistic theory, methods and findings (Widdowson 1980). The former term recognizes that, while linguistics offers important insights and solutions to language problems, and continues to form the core of applied linguistics, research from other disciplines, such as psychology, anthropology, sociology (and perhaps even philosophy and literary research), can also profitably be brought to bear on these problems.

In fact, according to Widdowson (2000a, 2000b), there is good reason to reject the understanding of AL as linguistics applied, since most language-based problems cannot reasonably be solved through the application of linguistic principles alone. According to Widdowson, the applied linguist serves as a mediator between linguistics and language teaching in order to convert the abstract into knowledge that is useful for pedagogical practices (Widdowson 200a: 28). This perspective, then, seems to mirror the earlier ‘applied linguists as consumer’ interpretation proposed by Corder, however, Widdowson recognizes the necessity for AL to draw on disciplines outside of linguistics in order to develop its insights and recommendations.

The Difference between AL and LA

One reason for drawing a distinction between applied linguistics and linguistics applied is the worry that, as ‘linguistics itself expands the domain of its own research interests beyond theorizing about autonomous and abstract grammatical systems to recognition of the relevance of context for language use and language learning, the narrow interpretation of AL as linguistics applied could well make redundant the work of applied linguists (Widdowson 200a).

Furthermore, the need for ALto draw on disciplines outside of linguistics means that, unlike linguistics proper, it is a genuinely interdisciplinary field. A more appropriate way, according to Spolsky (1980: 73)  is to mark the distinction between AL and linguistics proper. To recognize that the former is a ‘relevant linguistics’, while the latter believes there is merit in the autonomous study of language as an object in itself divorced from any real-world use.

The Activities of Applied Linguistics

Another matter of some controversy concerns the brand of linguistics that should inform the activities of AL. Widdowson (2000a: 29-30), for example, argues that generative theory is relevant to language teaching. But it is not the task of theoretician to demonstrate its relevance. The applied linguist is the mediator between theory and practice. He or she is charged with the responsibility of realizing this task.

Widdowson contends, for example, that Chomsky’s rejection of language learning as habit formation, and recognition that acquisition is a ‘cognitive and creative process’.  Which learners infer possible grammars on the basis of input and biologically determined constraints, has had a major impact on language teaching practice. While learners most certainly draw inferences based on what they hear and see. Even after a good deal of research is not clear that their inferences are constrained in the ways predicted by generative theory.

What is more, Chomsky’s understanding of ‘creativity’ is quite technical in nature. And it does not reflect the kind of creativity that others, such as Harris (1981), Bakhtin (1981) or Kramsch (1995), recognize as genuine linguistic creativity. For example, the ability to create new meanings and forms, especially in the domain of metaphor. And it is this kind of creativity that might  be more relevant to the language learning process.

Other Lines of Linguistic Research

Grabe (1992) proposes that, in addition to generative research, AL draw upon work in three other lines of linguistic research. Functional and typological theories as seen in the work of Halliday, Chafe, Givon, Comrie and Greenberg. Anthropological linguistics and sociolinguistics, represented in the research of Labov, Hymes, Ochs, Gumperz, Fishman and the Milroys. And research which results in descriptive grammars based on corpus linguistic analyses (corpora). Interestingly, this latter type of research is criticized by Widdowson (2000a: 24) as too narrow in scope. Because its focus is on what is done rather than on what is known. Although it has to be added that Widdowson sees some relevance for corpus linguistics. Since it is at least able to reflect a partial view of how language is deployed in the real world.

What agreement has been achieved seems to point to AL as a field whose scope of interest is the development of solutions to language-based problems in the real world. To realize its goal. It draws on theoretical, methodological and empirical research from a wide array of disciplines, including (but not limited to) linguistics.

One problem with perspective. Is that it is not clear that all of the work that refers to itself as AL can legitimately be seen as solutions to real-world problems. For instance, some of the leading journals in applied linguistics publish articles on; genre studies, discourse analysis and sociolinguistics that are potentially of interest to applied linguists. But in and of themselves not do purport to solve real-world language problems.

Other Programs of Applied Linguistics

The same can be said of the programs of the important international conferences in the field. The argument could be made. That this type of research, while not really applied in nature, is at least relevant to AL. Therefore could be included within its domain. Yet, if the problem-solving focus is to be distinguishing feature of applied linguistics. We might even question whether an area such as second language acquisition research should be legitimately included in applied linguistics.

Some SLA researchers, especially those working within the framework of Universal Grammar. Have in fact claimed that their project is not about solving real-world problems. And it might better be situated within the domain of theoretical linguistics. This argument is not without merit.  This sort of research helps us understand the constraints that operate in L1 acquisition also hold forL2. This is not to suggest that SLA research is not relevant to applied linguistics. But it does point to the complexities entailed in deciding whether a particular research program meets the criteria for inclusion within applied linguistics.

Laying the Foundation Of Applied Linguistics

In laying the foundation for linguistics as the science of languages. Saussure proposed that if linguistics was to operate as a legitimate scientific enterprise. It would be necessary to overlook how people actually use and learn language in their life-world. He thus created the illusion of language as an autonomous object, akin to the objects of the physical universe, so it could be studied in accordance with the principles of scientific enquiry.

This viewpoint has dominated much of the research in linguistics to the present day. Kaplan (1980a: 64) believes, however, that despite an assumption that AL research adheres to the principles of scientific investigation. Applied linguists might, on occasion, have to sacrifice these principles to find solutions to language-based human problems. Kaplan (1980a: 63) says that AL is ‘the most humanistic breed of linguists’. Perhaps, then, applied linguistics would be more appropriately situated alongside literary, historical […] rather than as a social, science.

Even though a humanistic applied linguistics manages to bring people back into the picture. It continues to foreground language over people as its proper object of study. Another way to conceptualize applied linguistics as the human science is to think of it as interested in the theoretical, as well as empirical, study of people as linguistic beings.

The Study of People as Linguistic Beings

AL, according to this view, investigates how people come to participate linguistically with other people. In communities of practice and how they mediate their activities within these communities. It also seeks to uncover and understand the sources and consequences of problems that arise when people experience difficulties. It also undertakes to understand how people succeed or fail in their attempts to participate in new communities of practice. And it seeks to develop appropriate means to assist them in their efforts. All of this clearly distinguishes applied linguistics from linguistics proper, which has as its object of study language, not people.

The centrality of language

As a branch of linguistics, applied linguistics retains a primary focus on language. This may seem like an obvious point to make, but as our research agenda in language teaching and learning broadens, it is a point that is sometimes easy to forget. The search for more effective classroom management techniques, and ongoing debates about education policy, for instance, are some of the things that might sometimes overlap with the remit of applied linguistics.

The same applies to emerging scholarship that problematises inequalities inside the classroom and beyond it, or the continuing work investigating psychology of language teachers and learners. Such crossover can enrich both applied linguistics and the adjoining disciplines. That said, work carried out under the banner of applied linguistics must explicitly connect to language, and it must show how its findings and impact are particular to language teaching and learning, as opposed to teaching and learning in general.

The relevance to the real world

This is what distinguishes ‘applied’ from ‘theoretical’ linguistics. Theoretical linguistics concerns itself with an abstract understanding of how language functions; applied linguistics is about taking those insights and finding answers to the ‘so what?’ and ‘now what?’ questions. The number of ‘real-world problems’ (or situations) to which linguistics is being applied has definitely proliferated. It now includes topics such as lexicography (the production of dictionaries), automated translation, human-machine interaction, and speech therapy, among others. All these actions certainly fall under the applied linguistics responsibility, but for my purposes as a language educator, I use a more restricted definition: in the context of language education, applied linguistics is the branch of linguistics that seeks to find implications of linguistics theory for language teaching and learning.

And here we have an overview of AL by Professor Philip Shaw, Stockholm University, Department of English.

Applied Linguistics according to Wikipedia

AL is an interdisciplinary field which identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, psychology, communication research, anthropology, and sociology.

AL is an interdisciplinary field. Major branches of applied linguistics include bilingualism and multilingualism, conversation analysis, contrastive linguistics, sign linguistics, language assessment, literacies, discourse analysis, language pedagogy, second language acquisition, language planning and policy, interlinguistics, stylistics, language teacher education, pragmatics, forensic linguistics and translation.

The tradition of applied linguistics established itself in part as a response to the narrowing of focus in linguistics with the advent in the late 1950s of generative linguistics, and has always maintained a socially-accountable role, demonstrated by its central interest in language problems.[1]

Although the field of applied linguistics started from Europe and the United States, the field rapidly flourished in the international context.

The Basis of Applied Linguistics according to Wikipedia

AL first concerned itself with principles and practices on the basis of linguistics and it was thought as “linguistics-applied” at least from the outside of the field. Applied Linguistics, in the 1960s, was expanded to include language assessment, language policy, and second language acquisition. As early as the 1970s, applied linguistics became a problem-driven field rather than theoretical linguistics, including the solution of language-related problems in the real world. By the 1990s, applied linguistics had broadened including critical studies and multilingualism. Research in applied linguistics was shifted to “the theoretical and empirical investigation of real world problems in which language is a central issue.”

In the United States, applied linguistics also began narrowly as the application of insights from structural linguistics—first to the teaching of English in schools and subsequently to second and foreign language teaching. Leonard Bloomfield promulgated he linguistics applied approach to language teaching, in which he developed the foundation for the Army Specialized Training Program, and by Charles C. Fries, who established the English Language Institute (ELI) at the University of Michigan in 1941.

AL, in 1946 became a recognized field of studies in the aforementioned university. In 1948, the Research Club at Michigan established Language Learning: A Journal of AL, the first journal to bear the term applied linguistics. In the late 1960s, applied linguistics began to establish its own identity as an interdisciplinary field of linguistics concerned with real-world language issues. The new identity was solidified by the creation of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in 1977.

After reading “Applied Linguistics”, you can check important issues for ESL teachers on the section PDFs. And visit my channel by YouTube.